Friday, September 6, 2019
Using Structure,Outcome, and Process in Evaluating Quality Medical Care Essay Example for Free
Using Structure,Outcome, and Process in Evaluating Quality Medical Care Essay Abstract            Structure, process, and outcome are the common indicators used in evaluating the quality of medical care.            This paper will delve on the meaning of structure, process, and outcome indicators as they relate to the assessment of quality medical care. Using Structure,Outcome, and Process in Evaluating Quality Medical Care            Healthcare personnel and medical facilities are constantly demanded to provide a report about the outcome of their admission of treatment. Governments get in touch with hospitals to provide an accounting of their results so that they could come up with new health care structure, as well as to serve as a back-up for the establishment of new regulations in medical systems. Insurance companies show greater interest in the outcome of medical treatments in order that they can deliver cost-effective care and benchmarking (Van der Ent, 6-7). Providing quality assessment of medical care is important because financial departments of health care providers usually it helps them come up with an affordable price in terms of medical care. Newspapers and magazines usually compare the performance of hospitals as far as the safety and satisfaction of their patients are concerned. For patients, they have the right to be informed about which facility or doctor provides quality medical care (Van der Ent, 6-7). At present, there are various systems in place used in assessing the quality of medical care. In the United Kingdom, for example, the salary of general practitioners are based on how they performed in the Quality and Outcomes Framework 1. In order to be successful, the hospital or medical facility should establish a set of indicators (Van der Ent, 6-7). Structure, Process, and Outcome As Indicators Of Quality Medical Care            The structure of the medical care serves as the background in the delivery of medical care to the patient. In administering cystic fibrosis, does the delivery of quality medical care involve other practitioners such as a pulmonist, physiotherapist, dietician, and social worker? (Van der Ent, 6-7)            Process indicators, on the other hand, has something to do with how medical care is organized. This means that every procedure requires protocols and guidelines. For example, what is the usual protocol in measuring lung function? How are patients infected by staphylococcus aureus segregated from other patients? (Van der Ent, 6-7)            Outcome indicators, meanwhile, is concerned with the result of medical care. It has something to do with statistics such as mortality rate, percentage of complications, number of patients who recover, and so on. The outcome of medical care usually helps in the determining whether care is insufficient as well as in pointing out the reason for the failure of medical care. In most healthcare systems, the basic requirement are the structure and process indicator instead of the outcome(Van der Ent, 6-7). The Advantage of Using Outcome In Assessing Quality Medical Care            The outcome of medical care is most often used as the indicator of quality health care. Its reliability as a determinant of quality care cannot be doubted. Aside from that, it more or less provides an accurate assessment of medical care (Donabien, 691-729).            However, there are some factors that limits the use of outcomes as an indicator of quality medical care. One of these factors is whether or not the outcome is indeed the relevant indicator. There are instances when outcomes becomes irrelevant especially in cases when the survival of the patient will not be critical but will cause them to be paralyzed or bring about serious complications (Donabien, 691-729). References C.K. van der Ent(2008). Quality Assessment: Is The Truth in the Outcome? European Respiratory Journal, 31, 6-7 Donabien, A(2005). Evaluating The Quality of Medical Care. The Milbank Quarterly, 83, 691 729
Allied Diplomacy Essay Example for Free
Allied Diplomacy Essay Due to Britains position as a major power, the country was able to reshape the Middle East and formulate agreements with several important cultures. However, some of the terms within these treaties were completely contradictory, creating dispute and controversy between parties. This very powerful mandate made many mistakes and errors in judgment that led to disastrous conflicts, such as providing assurances of things they werent able to fulfill and creating contradictory terms within official agreements. Britain was responsible for a great amount of problems in the Middle East during World War 1, but there were many other sources of instability with different origins and motives. Two of the most controversial events in the Middle East were the McMahon-Hussein agreement and the Balfour declaration, due to the profound difference in their terms. Whilst the Balfour Declaration promised to provide a National Homeland for the Jewish people, the McMahon- Hussein pact stated that Arab nationals would recover land previously owned by the Turks. At first sight, these terms were completely opposite, and according to the Jewish and the Arabs, impossible to fulfill at once. However, the British claimed that the way in which the Arabs had interpreted the McMahon-Hussein agreement was mistaken because they believed Palestine was to be given to them, just as Britain argued that the map used to establish the terms excluded Palestine from land that had to be given back to the Arab people. A minor phrase that stated that any land that was not purely Arab was to be excluded from the terms created a monumental disagreement when it came to this particular event. Hussein claimed Palestine had to be considered purely Arab as McMahon had a very different view. He believed the land in question was not of pure Arab nature because many other religious groups had established in Jerusalem under Turk rule, therefore eliminating the possibility of ultimate Arab presence in Palestine. Many Palestinians felt betrayed by the British government due to the use of inaccurate technicalities of language. The main purpose of the agreement Britain decided to make with Palestinian Arabs was to gain protection against Ottoman forces and their increasing power. In order to achieve their goal, British officials in Cairo contacted Sharif Hussein and informed him that if they were to assist them against Ottomans, Britain would support future Arab independence. The Arabs had to create a revolt and refer to the Ottomans as their enemies, in order to support the British government further. On the 10th of June 1916, the Arabs did effectively create a large physical conflict in order to fulfill the terms established and to gain the support they required for their ideal independence. The Arab army was founded and organized by the British government, but led by Sharif Husseins sons. Due to the amount of instability the Arab-British forces created in the region, the terms were now justified and Hussein demanded Britain to recognize Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Palestine and areas of the Arabian Peninsula as Arab countries. However, Syria and Lebanon were of French interest and therefore were discussed in the Sykes-Picot agreement that took place from 1915 to 1916. The United Kingdom recognized the freedom of the Arabs, creating not only a contradiction between the agreements made with France and Palestinians but a great dispute between the Jewish and Arabs, two religious groups that had been promised the same portion of land. As time passed, Britain started increasing the amount of conflict in the Middle East throughout grave contradictions and opposite statements. The McMahon-Hussein agreement occurred approximately two years before the Balfour declaration, increasing the dimension of the mistake made by the British government. Just after they had promised to return Middle Eastern territories to the Arabs, the major power was responsible for providing a very concrete assurance of giving the Jewish a national homeland within Palestine. Arthur James Balfour was very clear and was able to state this throughout a letter he wrote to Lord Rothschild on November 2nd, 1917. The Balfour Declaration urged Lionel Walter Rothschild to inform the Zionist Federation of the proposition and was clear that His Majestys government would use all its power to provide a National Homeland as long as no rights were violated in the process, even if they did belong to exterior ethnic groups. As mentioned before, this declaration was said to be completely contradictory to the agreement made with Sharif Hussein according to Jewish interpretation. Jews believed they w ould receive the entire land of Palestine and would be able to make exclusive use of it, whereas the British argued they never promised the land in its whole and therefore were not breaking any promises or contradicting the terms made in previous agreements. The Treaty of Sevres confirmed the promise made to the Jewish people in the 1917 Balfour Declaration and initiated a long-term problem between the both Palestinian Arabs and Jews. With this treaty, European Powers managed to solve their internal conflicts and successes by reestablishing the map of the region according to what was convenient at the moment, but didnt really think of the long-term consequences of the new arrangement. By not taking Turkish interests into account, the treaty of Sevres was not of their liking and managed to create a larger sense of nationalism within the country, thus creating the war. The lack of precision presented in the three consecutive arrangements with the Arabs, French and Jewish created a great deal of controversy and instability in the Middle Eastern region. Even though the British government was undoubtedly responsible for the majority of the disputes in the Middle East during WW1, there were some exterior factors that accumulated and created outrageous amounts of discrepancies. It wouldnt be incorrect to say that Britain acted the way it did due to the pressure put on it by the initiation of the Holy War, announced by the Ottomans. After four entire centuries of rule, the Ottoman Empire collapsed and therefore contributed to the incessant tensions between inhabitants of several countries. The mentioned empire was the worlds most influential Islamic power and was responsible for putting a stop to its neutrality towards the allies and declaring a Holy War against France, Russia and Great Britain. This war initiation not only put pressure on Britain, but also encouraged the government to find support against the Ottomans, hence the McMahon-Hussein agreement and its terms. In retrospect, Britain was mostly responsible for the instability in the Middle East during the First World War but there were some factors and events having to do with the Ottoman war declaration that created tension and controversy. If the treaties made with the French, Arabs and Jews had been coherent and logical when put together; the problems in the Middle East wouldnt have been so deeply catastrophic. To certain extent, there were some factors that put Britain in a very difficult position by threatening their empire and even though they were to blame for creating most of the conflicts during World War 1, they definitely werent responsible for starting the long sequence of instability. If it hadnt been for Britains lack of precision when presenting the terms, the long-term problem between Palestinian Arabs and Jews could have been reduced or avoided, despite their ambitious natures. The events and agreements mentioned were not the only sources of conflict between these two ethnic groups due to the disputes that had been occurring a long time before concerning land and respective properties. British officials could have definitely dealt with conflicts in a better way, avoiding the preposterous amount of tension and disputes in the Middle East from the beginning until de end of the war. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Palestinians. (n.d.). The McMahon Agreement. _History Learning Site_. Retrieved September 16, 2012, from http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mcmahon.htm The Balfour Declaration . (n.d.). _Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs_ . Retrieved September 16, 2012, from http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/The+Balfour+Declaration.htm British Mandate for Palestine. (n.d.). _Middle East: MidEastWeb_. Retrieved September 17, 2012, from http://www.mideastweb.org/Middle-East-Encyclopedia/british_mandate_palestine.htm
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Substitution reaction
Substitution reaction Introduction Substitution reaction of chemistry substitution reaction are also called displacement reactions .These are the reactions in which an atom or a group of atoms attached to a carbon atom in a molecule is replaced by some other atom or group of atoms without any change in the structure of the remaining part of the molecule. The product formed is known as the substitution product. The new atom or group which enters the molecule is called the substituent. Some example of substitution reactions are: CHâ‚„+clâ‚‚ → CHâ‚Æ'cl+Hcl Methane Methyl chloride Here H-atom of CHâ‚„ is replaced by chloride atom. CHâ‚Æ'-CHâ‚‚Br+KOH (aq) → CHâ‚Æ'CHâ‚‚OH+KBr Ethyl bromide Ethyl alcohol Here Br atom of ethyl bromide is replaced by OH group. CHâ‚Æ' -CHâ‚‚ = CHâ‚‚ → ClCHâ‚‚ -CH=CHâ‚‚ + Hcl Propene Allyl chloride Here H-atom of CHâ‚Æ' group is replaced by cl-atom Types of substitution reaction Depending upon the nature of attacking reagent, substitution reactions can be classified as below: a) Electrophilic Substitution Reactions : These are the reactions in which an atom or group in a molecule is replaced by an electrophile. Such reactions are shown by aromatic compound. CHâ‚…+HONO₂→ CHâ‚…NOâ‚‚+H â‚‚0 CHâ‚…+ NO₂→CHâ‚… NOâ‚‚+H â‚‚0 (H â‚‚s0 â‚„) Here Nitronium ion (NOâ‚‚ ions )acts as an electrophile and the process is called nitration. Mechanism. Consider the chlorination of benzene in presence of halogen carrier(Feclâ‚Æ') Feclâ‚Æ'+cl-cl → Feclâ‚„â »+cl(chloronium ion) Electrophiles are involved in electrophilic substitution reactions and particularly in electrophilic aromatic substitutions: Electrophilic reactions to other unsaturated compounds than arenes generally lead to electrophilic addition rather than substitution. B) Necleophilic Substitution Reactions:- These are the reaction sin which an atom or a group in a molecule is replaced by a nuclophile. Such reactions are shown by alkyl halides. Consider the action of aqueous KOH on methyl chloride. HOâ »+H -CHâ‚Æ' Cl→ Ho-cHâ‚Æ'OH+clâ » A nucleophile (literally nucleus lover) is a molecule or ion capable of acting as a Lewis base (i.e., an electron pair donor). Nucleophiles can be described as electron-rich while their targets or substrates can be described as electron-deficient (they are Lewis acids, i.e., electron pair acceptors). In a nucleophilic substitution the nucleophile takes the place ofor substitutes forsome atom or group on the substrate (called the leaving group): Nu: + R:L → R:Nu+ + :L- nucleophile substrate product leaving group If the nucleophile is neutral (as shown above) the product will be charged since the leaving group takes both bonding electrons away with it. If the nucleophile is an anion then the product will be neutral: Nu: + R:L → R:Nu + :L- Stronger bases make better nucleophiles (e.g., OH- is a better nucleophile than H2O). Good substrates include cations, central atoms with incomplete octets or double bonds (like sp2 carbons) or carbons with partial positive charges. Halogens are generally more electronegative than carbon and so organohalogen compounds are usually subject to nucleophilic attack at the carbon attached to the halogen (which would be the positive end of a dipole). For example, 2-chloro-2-methylpropane (commonly known as t-butyl chloride) will undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydroxide ion: (CH3)3CCl + OH → (CH3)3COH + Cl This is a typical synthetic route for producing an alcohol from an alkyl halide. Nucleophilic substitution reactions have been studied for many years. It was noticed fairly early that while the overall reaction was similar in the vast majority of cases the kinetics of the process was not always the same. In some substitutions the concentration of the nucleophile had no effect on the rate. In others, the rate was directly proportional to the concentration of the nucleophile. This suggested that two different mechanisms must be at work. The factor which determines the mechanism employed is typically the nature of the substrate itself and NOT the particular nucleophile. Necleophilic substitution reactions are further classified as:- 1)Necleophilic substitution Biomolecular :- Such reaction sare shown by primary alkyl halides and involve a single step. The breaking of C-X bond and the making of C-OH bond takes place simultaneously. The neucleophile approaches the C-atom from the side opposite to that carrying the halogen. In such reactions, an inverted product is formed. The reaction involves the formation of a transition state. The reaction follows the rate law, Rate=k[Alkyl halide][OH]. As the slow rate determining step involves two molecule(Alkyl halide and alkali); therefore, the reaction is known as bimolecular substitution reaction. Most necleophilic substitutions, which involve the expulsion of an originally neutral substituent ,notably of halogen, from the aromatic ring,at temperature which are not particularly high,use the biomolecular mechanism SN2. This is established by their second order kinetics, which are documented by many records, (NOâ‚‚)â‚‚CHâ‚Æ'†¢Cl+OEt⠻→(NOâ‚‚)â‚‚CHâ‚Æ'†¢OEt+Clâ » In substitution of this type,the rate of attack by different reagent on the same aromatic molecules follow the general order of nucleophilic strength towards carbon. This is the conclusion to which Bunnatt and Zahler come after having assembled data from many sources. The first mechanism is known as SN1 (substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular) because only one molecule is involved in the first stepthe rate determining step. Reactions occurring by this mechanism should exhibit first-order kinetics, i.e., the rate law should have the form rate = k[substrate]1. Because the nucleophile is not involved until after the slow step its concentration will have no effect on the rate. The alternate mechanism is called SN2 (substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular) because two molecules are involved in the rate determining (and only) step. Such reactions exhibit overall second-order kinetics. The rate is proportional to both the concentration of the substrate and the concentration of the nucleophile. Reactions like this will have a rate law in the form rate = k[substrate] [nucleophile] 2) Nucleophilic Substitution Unimolecular:- This mechanism is generally followed by tertiary alkyl halide. In the first step, tertiary alkyl halie breaks hydrolytically to form intermediate carbonium ion. The formation of carbonium ion is the slow rate determing step. In the second step, the nucleophile attacks tha carbonium ion to form an alcohol. Consider the action of aqueous KOH or tertiary Butyl bromide. CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' ____ C-Br ⇄ CHâ‚Æ' C +Brâ » (Slow Step) CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' ____ C + OHâ » ⇄ CHâ‚Æ' C +OH (Fast Step) CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' (carbonium ion) Tert. butyl alcohol Or The best established eample of nucleophilic aromatic substitution by the unimolecular mechanism ,SN1,is the uncatalysed decomposition of diazoium ions,in hydroxylic solvent,to give phenols or phhenolic ethers,accomplished often byaryl halides or others such substitution products, if the necessary necleophilic anions are present in the solution: ArNâ‚‚+ → Ar+Nâ‚‚ (Slow) Ar+Hâ‚‚o →Ar†¢ OH+H (fast) Ar+ROH→Ar†¢OR+H (Fast) Ar +cl ⠻→ Ar†¢ Cl (Fast) These are SN1 mechanism . The alternate mechanism is called SN2 (substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular) because two molecules are involved in the rate determining (and only) step. Such reactions exhibit overall second-order kinetics. The rate is proportional to both the concentration of the substrate and the concentration of the nucleophile. Reactions like this will have a rate law in the form rate = k[substrate] [nucleophile] 3) Free Radicals Subsitution Reactions[1.2.3] These are the reactions in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by a free radical. The replacement of H- atom by a halogen atom is an example of free radicals substitution.In the free radical substitution reaction, the attacking reagent is a free radicals. These reactions are carried either at high temperature or in the presence of ultra-violet light. In organic chemistry, a radical substitution reaction is a substitution reaction involving free radicals as a reactive intermediate The reaction always involves at least two steps, and possibly a third. In the first step called initiation (2,3) a free radical is created by photolysis. Homolysis can be brought about by heat or light but also by radical initiators such as organic peroxides or azo compounds. Light is used to create two free radicals from one diatomic species. The final step is called termination (6,7) in which the radical recombines with another radical species. If the reaction is not terminated, but instead the radical group(s) go on to react further, the steps where new radicals are formed and then react is collectively known as propagation (4,5) because a new radical is created available for secondary reactions. Mechanism. The mechanism of free radicals substitution involves three steps:- I) Initiation :- In this step, halogen molecule breaks homolyticallly to form free radicals. Consider the action of Brâ‚‚ on ethane in presence of sunlight. Br-Br Br II) Propagation step: The Br formed in the first step reacts with alkane molecule to form new free radicals which in turn reacts with bromine molecule and the chain react ion starts and so on. CHâ‚Æ'CHâ‚Æ'+Br →CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚+HBr CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚+Br -Br →CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚Br+Br 3) Termination.: In this step, the free radicals combine and the reaction stops. Br + Br → Brâ‚‚ Similarly, consider action of Clâ‚‚ on propene. I) cl cl→ 2Cl II) CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚Æ'+Cl→ CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚‚+HCl CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚‚+Cl-Cl→ CHâ‚‚=CH-CHâ‚‚Cl+Cl Substitution Reactions[1.2.3] Substitution Reactions. In an acid-base reaction such as CH3CO2H + NH3 → CH3CO2 + NH4+ the N acts as a nucleophile (Greek for â€Å"loving the nucleus), the H acts as an electrophile (â€Å"loves electrons†), and the O that accepts the pair of electrons acts as a leaving group. The acid-base reaction is the simplest model for a substitution reaction, which is a reaction in which a ÃÆ' bond between atom 1 and atom 2 is replaced by a ÃÆ' bond between atom 1 and atom 3. Substitution reactions are incredibly important in organic chemistry, and the most important of these involve substitutions at C. For example: This substitution reaction, discovered in 1849, involves the nucleophilic O making a new bond to the electrophilic C, and the bond between the electrophilic C and the leaving group I breaking. Any Brà ¸nsted base can also act as a nucleophile, and any nucleophile can also act as a Brà ¸nsted base, but some compounds are particularly good bases and particularly poor nucleophiles, whereas some are particularly poor bases and particularly good nucleophiles. Any Brà ¸nsted or Lewis acid can also act as an electrophile, but there are many electrophiles that are neither Brà ¸nsted nor Lewis acids (as in the example above). A haloalkane, e.g. CH3CH2Br, can in principle undergo either of two polar reactions when it encounters a lone pair nucleophile, e.g. MeO-. First, MeO- might replace Br- at the electrophilic C atom, forming a new C-O bond and giving an ether as the product. This is substitution, because the C-Br ÃÆ' bond is replaced with a C-O ÃÆ' bond. Second, MeO- might attack a H atom that is adjacent to the electrophilic C atom, giving MeOH, Br-, and an alkene as products. The electrons in the C-H bond move to form the À bond, and the electrons in the C-X bond leave with X-. This is elimination, because a new À bond is formed, and because the elements of the organic starting material are now divided between more tha n one product. Elimination requires that the substrate have a C-X bond and adjacent C-H bonds, while substitution requires only that the substrate have a C-X bond. Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction The name in the title in given to those substitution in whichnucleophilic reagent, such as Brâ », combine with aromatic carbon and aprecltyuviously present substituent such as †¢Cl,†¢NOâ‚‚, becomes expelled along with its bonding electrons With considerable difficultly even †¢H may be expelled with its bonding electrons i.e at Hâ ». Biomolecular substitution reaction electron attracting substituent especially one conjugated with aromatic system such as nitro,carbonyl,syano aids the attack of the reagent and a 2-or 4-situated hetero atom ,as n pyridine ,acts in a similar way. Neuclophilic aromatic substtion can proceed by several,mechanism. The Unimolecular and Biomolecular mechanism can definitely be recognized and other mechanism some of which are understood,can be seen to exist. The unimolecular mechanism is limited to the replacement of those substituents which are sufficiently loosely bound to undergo spontaneous heterlysis in solution. The biomolecular mechanism is muc more general, doubtless because it make much less severe demands on thequality of the explled group,so that a hydrogen shift involved.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Is Equality Truly Equal? Essay -- Gender Pay Gap, Glass Ceilings
Women have always been paid less than men for doing the same work of the same quality. We are at a point in history where all people are considered to be equal, especially in this country. But even in this â€Å"equal world, women are still paid less. Is this what equal looks like? We can’t just brag about being of the forerunners of the modern world, we have to actually practice what we preach. The worst part of this inequality is that most people are oblivious to this pay gap; employees are usually prohibited from sharing the amount they are being paid. A large number of families that this affects are single mother families where there is only one paycheck to provide for the entire family. â€Å"In 2010, in nearly two-thirds of families (63.9 percent), a mother was either the breadwinner†¦When women’s wages are lowered due to gender discrimination, their families’ incomes are often significantly lowered as well†(Glynn). This is a problem that is c onstantly being ignored, but no more, it must be addressed in order to make equality equal. Because employers assume that women are prone to focus more time on their family and less towards furthering their own career, therefore we should pass the Paycheck Fairness Act of 2013, since the law would provide the same pay to women as to men; equal work for equal pay. The Women's Rights Movement, which began in 1848, sought out to achieve full civil rights in this country. From this movement women ultimately gained the right to vote. In addition, the American Equal Rights Association was founded, the Working Women's Protective Union in New York was established, the National Labor Union supported equal pay for equal work, and the Association for the Advancement of Women was formed. During World War I... ...Unchanged Since 2002.†National Partnership for Women & Families. National Partnership for Women & Families. 17 Sept. 2013. Web. 5 Nov. 2013 Noguchi, Yuki. â€Å"50 Years After The Equal Pay Act, Gender Wage Gap Endures.†NPR. NPR. 10 June 2013. Web. 5 Nov. 2013. O’Brien, Susie. "More Pay For Men Women Miss Out On $165 A Week, Thanks To Gender Pay Gap." Herald Sun (Melbourne)(2013): 11. Points of View Reference Center. Web. 4 Nov. 2013. â€Å"The Paycheck Fairness Act: The Next Step in the Fight for Fair Pay.†National Organization for Women. National Organization for Women. Web. 11 Dec. 2013. Waldron, Travis. â€Å"The 10 Jobs With The Biggest Gender Wage Gap.†ThinkProgress. Center for American Progress Action Fund. 9 Apr. 2013. Web. 5 Nov. 2013. Will, George F. "A New Project For The Gender Police." Newsweek156.14 (2010): 24. Points of View Reference Center. Web. 1 Nov. 2013.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Blacks in Civil War Portrayed in The Movie Glory Essay -- essays resea
The American Civil War was a major war in the United States between the Union and eleven Southern states which declared that they had a right to secession and formed the Confederate States of America. They were led by Jefferson Davis who was elected as their president. The Union, led by President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, opposed the expansion of slavery into territories owned by the United States and rejected any right of secession. The United States Civil War began as an effort to save the Union but it ended in a fight to abolish slavery. Tens of thousands of soldiers on each side, in battle after battle, had the courage to march in regular order against the withering fire of the defenders, while those around them fell with hideous and usually fatal wounds for many different reasons. Southerners fought for their rights and their way of life. Blacks for on another and for the end of slavery. Northerners fought to keep the Union together and latter on the end of slav ery. Blacks fought for Religion, to demonstrate to all that blacks are just as capable as whites in battle and to show Gods righteousness. Northerners had elected Abraham Lincoln as their president and were willing to fight for whatever he believed in and what he thought to be morally legitimate. In the beginning of the war, the Northerners were focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. They did not want slavery to extend into their because they wanted that area to be a work place for white men. They knew that if blacks went their that whites would loose their jobs to them so they tried to preserve that land for whites. but keeping it in the southern states where it had already was prohibited. The cause of the war shift... ...he had and that he had so much love for them. He even started to cry witch shows how much love he had for his fellow soldiers. The Massachusetts 54th regiment demonstrated great courage at Fort Wagner. by attacking Fort Wagner nonstop knowing that they were fighting against the wall and that they could easily lose. They still continued to fight because they were close and when they saw one of their own men fall to the ground, it hurt their heart so they fought for that person. They did this that because the regiment was the only family they had and the way they trained and acted made them closer and become like brothers. This was one of those grate emotional motives that really pushed them to fight even harder. This was also to prove to whites that blacks were just as capable as whites in battle. When they proved this they were braking stereotypical boundaries.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Slave Trading Essay -- Slavery
â€Å"African slavery is the corner-stone of the industrial, social, and political fabric of the South; and whatever wars against it, wars against her very existence. Strike down the institution of African slavery and you reduce the South to depopulation and barbarism.†–Lawerence Keitt, South Carolina Congressman, 1860 Slave trading dates back to ancient times, but it did not become popular until the fifteenth century when the Portugese began engaging in slave trading for profit. The colonization of the Americas brought about a new wave of slave importation in the late seventeenth century. A large percentage of the indentured servants and Native Americans were dying from diseases bought to the land by Europeans, and the American colonists were forced to look elsewhere for laborers. They discovered that African Americans were virtually immune to tropical diseases, cheap to import, and were experienced agrarians, so they championed slavery under the premise that African Americans were inferior to their own race. Because slaves were cheap, it was much easier for a planter to work a slave to his death and replace him with another than to treat him well. By the end of the seventeenth century, African American were being imported to the Americas and sold to planters by the thousands. Slavery, indeed, bec ame the â€Å"cornerstone†of America’s economic success. Without the grueling labor of the slaves, the booming sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco industries would have ceased to exist in the New World. As the Americas evolved from a simple farming society into an agricultural stronghold, settlers became more and more dependent on slavery. By the mid-eighteenth century, slaves vastly outnumbered colonists. During the seventeenth, eight... ...audah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself, volume 1, 70-88. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishments of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament. Ibid. Ibid. Equiano, 70-88. Ibid. Solomon Northup, Twelve Years A Slave, 78-82. Equanio, 70-88. Ibid. â€Å"Management of Slaves, &c,†The Farmer’s Register: A Monthly Publication Devoted to the Improvement of the Practice and Support of the Interests of Agriculture 5, 10 May 1837, 32-33. Ibid. Samuel G. Howe, in John W. Blassingame, Slave Testimony, American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission Interviews, 386. Ibid. Howe, 385. Ibid. Howe, 386. Joint Select Committee Chairman, Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Inquire Into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, volume 1, 1862, 411-412. Ibid. Ibid.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Security on the Internet
The Internet has had security problems since its earliest days as a pure research project. Today, after several years and orders of magnitude of growth, is still has security problems. It is being used for a purpose for which it was never intended: commerce. It is somewhat ironic that the early Internet was design as a prototype for a high-availability command and control network that could resist outages resulting from enemy actions, yet it cannot resist college undergraduates. The problem is that the attackers are on, and make up apart of, the network they are attacking. Designing a system that is capable of resisting attack from within, while still growing and evolving at a breakneck pace, is probably impossible. Deep infrastructure changes are needed, and once you have achieved a certain amount of size, the sheer inertia of the installed base may make it impossible to apply fixes. The challenges for the security industry are growing. With the electronic commerce spreading over the Internet, there are issues such as nonrepudiation to be solved. Financial institutions will have both technical concerns, such as the security of a credit card number or banking information, and legal concerns for holding individuals responsible for their actions such as their purchases or sales over the Internet. Issuance and management of encryption keys for millions of users will pose a new type of challenge. While some technologies have been developed, only an industry-wide effort and cooperation can minimize risks and ensure privacy for users, data confidentiality for the financial institutions, and nonrepudiation for electronic commerce. With the continuing growth in linking individuals and businesses over the Internet, some social issues are starting to surface. The society may take time in adapting to the new concept of transacting business over the Internet. Consumers may take time to trust the network and accept it as a substitute for transacting business in person. Another class of concerns relates to restricting access over the Internet. Preventing distribution of pornography and other objectionable material over the Internet has already been in the news. We can expect new social hurdles over time and hope the great benefits of the Internet will continue to override these hurdles through new technologies and legislations. The World Wide Web is the single largest, most ubiquitous source of information in the world, and it sprang up spontaneously. People use interactive Web pages to obtain stock quotes, receive tax information from the Internal Revenue Service, make appointments with a hairdresser, consult a pregnancy planner to determine ovulation dates, conduct election polls, register for a conference, search for old friends, and the list goes on. It is only natural that the Web’s functionality, popularity, and ubiquity have made it the seemingly ideal platform for conducting electronic commerce. People can now go online to buy CDs, clothing, concert tickets, and stocks. Several companies, such Digicash, Cybercash, and First Virtual, have sprung up to provide mechanisms for conducting business on the Web. The savings in cost and the convenience of shopping via the Web are incalculable. Whereas most successful computer systems result from careful, methodical planning, followed by hard work, the Web took on a life of its own from the very beginning. The introduction of a common protocol and a friendly graphical user interface was all that was needed to ignite the Internet explosion. The Web’s virtues are extolled without end, but its rapid growth and universal adoption have not been without cost. In particular, security was added as an afterthought. New capabilities were added ad hoc to satisfy the growing demand for features without carefully considering the impact on security. As general-purpose scripts were introduced on both the client and the server sides, the dangers of accidental and malicious abuse grew. It did not take long for the Web to move from the scientific community to the commercial world. At this point, the security threats became much more serious. The incentive for malicious attackers to exploit vulnerabilities in the underlying technologies is at an all-time high. This is indeed frightening when we consider what attackers of computer systems have accomplished when their only incentive was fun and boosting their egos. When business and profit are at stake, we cannot assume anything less than the most dedicated and resourceful attackers typing their utmost to steal, cheat, and perform malice against users of the Web. When people use their computers to surf the Web, they have many expectations. They expect to find all sorts of interesting information, they expect to have opportunities to shop and they expect to be bombarded with all sorts of ads. Even people who do not use the Web are in jeopardy of being impersonated on the Web. There are simple and advanced methods for ensuring browser security and protecting user privacy. The more simple techniques are user certification schemes, which rely on digital Ids. Netscape Communicator Navigator and Internet Explorer allow users to obtain and use personal certificates. Currently, the only company offering such certificates is Verisign, which offers digital Ids that consist of a certificate of a user’s identity, signed by Verisign. There are four classes of digital Ids, each represents a different level of assurance in the identify, and each comes at an increasingly higher cost. The assurance is determined by the effort that goes into identifying the person requesting the certificate. Class 1 Digital IDs, intended for casual Web browsing, provided users with an unambiguous name and e-mail address within Verisign’s domain. A Class 1 ID provides assurance to the server that the client is using an identity issued by Verisign but little guarantee about the actual person behind the ID. Class 2 Digital IDs require third party confirmation of name, address, and other personal information related to the user, and they are available only to residents of the United States and Canada. The information provided to Verisign is checked against a consumer database maintained by Equifax. To protect against insiders at Verisign issuing bogus digital IDs, a hardware device is used to generate the certificates. Class 3 Digital IDs are not available. The purpose is to bind an individual to an organization. Thus, a user in possession of such an ID could, theoretically, prove that he or she belongs to the organization that employs him or her. The idea behind Digital IDs is that they are entered into the browser and then are automatically sent when users connect to sites requiring personal certificates. Unfortunately, the only practical effect is to make impersonating users on the network only a little bit more difficult. Many Web sites require their users to register a name and a password. When users connect to these sites, their browser pops up an authentication window that asks for these two items. Usually, the browser than sends the name and password to the server that can allow retrieval of the remaining pages at the site. The authentication information can be protected from eavesdropping and replay by using the SSL protocol. As the number of sites requiring simple authentication grows, so does the number of passwords that each user must maintain. In fact, users are often required to have several different passwords for systems in their workplace, for personal accounts, for special accounts relating to payroll and vacation, and so on. It is not uncommon for users to have more than six sites they visit that require passwords. In the early days of networking, firewalls were intended less as security devices than as a means of preventing broken networking software or hardware from crashing wide-area networks. In those days, malformed packets or bogus routes frequently crashed systems and disrupted servers. Desperate network managers installed screening systems to reduce the damage that could happen if a subnet’s routing tables got confused or if a system’s Ethernet card malfunctioned. When companies began connecting to what is now the Internet, firewalls acted as a means of isolating networks to provide security as well as enforce an administrative boundary. Early hackers were not very sophisticated; neither were early firewalls. Today, firewalls are sold by many vendors and protect tens of thousands of sites. The products are a far cry from the first-generation firewalls, now including fancy graphical user interfaces, intrusion detection systems, and various forms of tamper-proof software. To operate, a firewall sits between the protected network and all external access points. To work effectively, firewalls have to guard all access points into the network’s perimeter otherwise, an attacker can simply go around the firewall and attack an undefended connection. The simple days of the firewalls ended when the Web exploded. Suddenly, instead of handling only a few simple services in an â€Å"us versus them manner†, firewalls now must be connected with complex data and protocols. Today’s firewall has to handle multimedia traffic level, attached downloadable programs (applets) and a host of other protocols plugged into Web browsers. This development has produced a basis conflict: The firewall is in the way of the things users want to do. A second problem has arisen as many sites want to host Web servers: Does the Web server go inside or outside of the firewall? Firewalls are both a blessing and a curse. Presumably, they help deflect attacks. They also complicate users’ lives, make Web server administrators’ jobs harder, rob network performance, add an extra point of failure, cost money, and make networks more complex to manage. Firewall technologies, like all other Internet technologies, are rapidly changing. There are two main types of firewalls, plus many variations. The main types of firewalls are proxy and network-layer. The idea of a proxy firewall is simple: Rather than have users log into a gateway host and then access the Internet from there, give them a set of restricted programs running on the gateway host and let them talk to those programs, which act as proxies on behalf of the user. The user never has a account or login on the firewall itself, and he or she can interact only with a tightly controlled restricted environment created by the firewall’s administrator. This approach greatly enhances the security of the firewall itself because it means that users do not have accounts or shell access to the operating system. Most UNIX bugs require that the attacker have a login on the system to exploit them. By throwing the users off the firewall, it becomes just a dedicated platform that does nothing except support a small set of proxies-it is no longer a general-purpose computing environment. The proxies, in turn, are carefully designed to be reliable and secure because they are the only real point of the system against which an attack can be launched. Proxy firewalls have evolved to the point where today they support a wide range of services and run on a number of different UNIX and Windows NT platforms. Many security experts believe that proxy firewall is more secure than other types of firewalls, largely because the first proxy firewalls were able to apply additional control on to the data traversing the proxy. The real reason for proxy firewalls was their ease of implementation, not their security properties. For security, it does not really matter where in the processing of data the security check is made; what’s more important is that it is made at all. Because they do not allow any direct communication between the protected network and outside world, proxy firewall inherently provide network address translation. Whenever an outside site gets a connection from the firewall’s proxy address, it in turn hides and translates the addresses of system behind the firewall. Prior to the invention of firewalls, routers were often pressed into service to provide security and network isolation. Many sites connecting to the Internet in the early days relied on ordinary routers to filter the types of traffic allowed into or out of the network. Routers operate on each packet as a unique event unrelated to previous packets, filtered on IP source, IP destination, IP port number, and a f few other basic data contained in the packet header. Filtering, strictly speaking, does not constitute a firewall because it does not have quite enough detailed control over data flow to permit building highly secure connections. The biggest problem with using filtering routers for security is the FTP protocol, which, as part of its specification, makes a callback connection in which the remote system initiates a connection to the client, over which data is transmitted. Cryptography is at the heart of computer and network security. The important cryptographic functions are encryption, decryption, one-way hashing, and digital signatures. Ciphers are divided into two categories, symmetric and asymmetric, or public-key systems. Symmetric ciphers are functions where the same key is used for encryption and decryption. Public-key systems can be used for encryption, but they are also useful for key agreement and digital signatures. Key-agreement protocols enable two parties to compute a secret key, even in the face of an eavesdropper. Symmetric ciphers are the most efficient way to encrypt data so that its confidentiality and integrity are preserved. That is, the data remains secret to those who do not posses the secret key, and modifications to the cipher text can be detected during decryption. Two of the most popular symmetric ciphers are the Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA). The DES algorithm operates on blocks of 64 bits at a time using a key length of 56 bits. The 64 bits are permuted according to the value of the key, and so encryption with two keys that differently in one bit produces two completely different cipher texts. The most popular mode of DES is called Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode, where output from previous block are mixed with the plaintext of each block. The first block is mixed with the plaintext of each block. The block uses a special value called the Initialization Vector. Despite its size and rapid growth, the Web is still in its infancy. So is the software industry. We are just beginning to learn how to develop secure software, and we are beginning to understand that for our future, if it is to be online, we need to incorporate security into the basic underpinnings of everything we develop.
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